The term taboo originates from Polynesian Tonga (‚tapu‘ o. ‚ta pu‘) and was documented in the course of James Cook’s sea voyages, whereupon the term also became established in Europe. Originally, the Polynesian term had religious-magical connotations (cf. Freud 2014, 635) and could refer to something sacred, untouchable, as well as something impure, forbidden (cf. Ibid., 629). Although the term originated in the cultural space of Polynesia, it is a cross-cultural phenomenon that can also be found in any other culture (cf. Wundt 1926).
Cross-cultural phenomenon
In today’s parlance, a taboo is a socially deeply internalized prohibition that, as an unwritten and sometimes unconscious law, requires members of a cultural group to refrain from a certain action or to remain silent (cf. ‚taboo research‘). This cross-cultural phenomenon of social taboos has been studied by James G. Frazer (1854-1941), among others, and found access to scientific discourse at least since the writing Totem and Taboo by the Viennese psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). While Frazer first described the taboo as a cross-cultural phenomenon that serves to consolidate a system of social order, Freud likewise viewed the taboo as an individual psychological phenomenon (cf. Emrich 2015, 13) that serves to suppress certain desires. „The basis of the taboo[s] is a forbidden action, in addition to which there is a strong inclination in the unconscious“ (Freud 2014, p.641), which would also explain the fundamentally ambivalent attitude toward a taboo, encompassing both awe and revulsion (cf. Ibid., 636). Meanwhile, the taboo is the subject of various disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnology, religious studies, cultural studies or linguistics.
Types of taboos
There are different types of taboos such as religious taboos, gender-specific taboos or politeness taboos. One can further distinguish between taboos that are directed at actions, communication and certain concepts, objects, places, thoughts or even emotions (cf. Balle). If a taboo refers to a specific object or person, however, it should be mentioned that it is not the tabooed object itself that is considered forbidden, but rather a certain action or attitude directed towards it (cf. Scholz), namely touching, looking at, naming, or thinking about the tabooed object in some way.
Frequently tabooed topics include death, illness, excretions and certain bodily functions, menstruation, genitals, sexuality in general or of individual groups such as the elderly or impaired, addictions, as well as talking about dissatisfaction with the assigned gender role (mother/caregiver role), psychological problems, or negative emotions in general. Also often prohibited by taboos are incest, cannibalism, eating certain animals or products, specific political debates, or accusations of ’speech bans‘ against political correctness actors*.
Taboos versus prohibitions
Although a taboo marks something forbidden, it is usually distinguished from a conventional ban. While a normal prohibition is explicitly taught, a taboo is implicitly internalized in early childhood according to socialization within a cultural framework. Similarly, taboo violations are not punished in the same way as violations of prohibitions, but often evoke reactions such as shame or disgust (cf. Reimann 1989, 421) and are socially sanctioned (cf. Kraft 2004, 9-15). While prohibitions can be talked about or even discussed, „[taboos] actually prohibit themselves. […] Taboo prohibitions lack any justification […]; incomprehensible to us, they appear self-evident to those who are under their rule“ (Freud 2014, 629). Thus, it can also be observed that even the discourse about an existing taboo is tabooed (cf. Balle). And „[t]he strangest thing is probably that whoever has managed to transgress such a taboo has himself the character of the forbidden […]“ (Freud 2014, 632). However, this juxtaposition of taboo and prohibition should be understood less as a strict dichotomy than as a continuum between two pools (cf. Schröder 2003, 310).
Taboo Functions and Breaches
Social taboos restrict the possibilities of action of individuals, are in this respect on the one hand repressive and can contribute to consolidate political conditions or prevent discourses. Since taboos have the function of supporting social order (cf. Betz 1978, 144), they can, on the other hand, be equally relieving, protective, or even identity-forming for the individual (cf. Base 2007). They have the „social function of regulating behavior, establishing boundaries, recognizing authorities, e.g., to secure property-rule relationships and certain social orders“ (Reimann 1989, 421).
Accordingly, the breaking of a taboo also threatens, as it were, the entire social group in which the taboo applies (cf. Freud 2014, 616). Therefore, in order to avoid breaking a taboo, different verbal and nonverbal coping strategies can be observed (cf. Schröder 2003, 311). For example, „euphemisms are an ideal way of proceeding when it comes to respecting taboos without negating one’s own conversational needs“ (Reuter 2009, 19). Depending on the cultural context, a different linguistic approach to taboo touches can also be observed.
Taboos in intercultural communication
For contact with another cultural group, it is particularly significant to become aware of potential conflict topics and to find a respectful way of dealing with them (cf. ‚taboo research‘). Knowing what not to talk about or how not to behave is also an essential part of cultural conventions. Since taboos have grown historically and are constantly changing, they are also highly relative to the respective cultural context (cf. Kraft 2004, 9-15). Thus, there are various taboos that only apply in certain cultural circles. And since these are not made explicit, there is a risk of unintentional taboo violation. Likewise, however, there are also those taboos that appear similarly in different cultures, such as the incest taboo. However, not only the areas of taboos are culture-specific, but also the degree of tabooing as well as the corresponding coping strategies (cf. Danninger 1982, 237). „Linguistic knowledge of possible circumvention strategies [as well as] tolerance towards taboo phenomena“ (Schröder 2003, 314) is consequently fundamental for successful intercultural communication.
Literature
Balle, Christel: Taboo Concept. https://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/ehemalige_professoren/sw2/forschung/tabu/tabubegriff/index.html (14.09.2020).
Base, Gerhard: On Taboos and Tabooing. In: Taboos und Grenzen der Ethik. Ed. by Michael Fischer and R. Kacianka. Frankfurt a. M.: Peter Lang 2007 (= Ethik transdisziplinär 7). S. 13-30.
Betz, Werner: Taboo. Words and Change. In: Meyers Enzyklopädisches Lexikon. 9th ed. Ed. v. Bibliogr. Institut. Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut 1978 (= vol. 23). S. 141-144.
Danninger, Elisabeth: Taboo areas and euphemisms. In: Language theory and applied linguistics. Festschrift für Alfred Wollmann zum 60. Geburtstag. Ed. by Werner Welte. Tübingen: Narr 1982. pp. 237-251.
Emrich, Matthias: Introduction. Taboo Culture. In: Texts and Taboo. Zur Kultur von Verbot und Übertretung von der Spätantike bis zur Gegenwart. Edited by Alexander Dingeldein and M. Emrich. Bielefeld: Transcirpt 2015 (= Mainzer Historische Kulturwissenschaften 21). S. 7-18.
Freud, Sigmund: Totem and Taboo. In: Collected Works. Cologne: Anaconda 2014. pp. 607-758.
Kraft, Hartmut: Taboo. Magic and social reality. Düsseldorf: Walter 2004.
Reimann, Horst: Taboo. In: Staatslexikon. Law – Economy – Society in 5 Volumes. Ed. by the Görres Society. 7th completely revised ed. Freiburg: Herder 1989 (= vol. 5). S. 420-421.
Reuter, Ursula: Sprache und Tabu. Interpretation on French and Italian euphemisms. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 2009 (= Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für Romanische Philologie 346).
Scholz, Alexander: Handout for lecture: Tabu – Ein ethnophänomenologischer Deutungsansatz. https://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/ehemalige_professoren/sw2/forschung/tabu/weterfuehrende_informationei/alexander_scholz/index.html (14.09.2020).
Schröder, Hartmut: Tabu. In: Handbook of Intercultural German Studies. Ed. by Alois Wierlacher and A. Bogner. Stuttgart: Metzler 2003. pp. 307-315.
Taboo Research. https://www.kuwi.europa-uni.de/de/lehrstuhl/ehemalige_professoren/sw2/forschung/tabu/index.html (09/14/2020).
Wundt, Wilhelm: Völkerpsychologie. An investigation of the developmental laws of language, myth, and custom. 4th vol. 4th ed. Leipzig: Scientia Verlag 1926.