Feminism

The term feminism describes a) „a movement that advocates political-practical measures to improve the life chances of women ( women’s movement, emancipation), and b) theoretical-scientific efforts to perceive and overcome discrimination against the female sex as a barrier to scientific (and practical) knowledge“ (Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung o.J.).

It anticipates a fundamental change in the position of women by adjusting life situations, social roles, and structures and processes that conceptualize women’s subordination (cf. Thiessen 2008, 38).

Historical background of the women’s movement

Historically, feminism characterizes a movement that was politically and socially shaped and represents a theoretical guideline. In the 18th and 19th centuries, women’s movements emerged from previous movements that were critical of society and domination and aimed to create equal civil rights for women as they already applied to men, as well as in the area of reproduction, among other things (see Müller 2013, 132, 134). The various feminist movements include, for example, Liberal Feminism, Ecofeminism, and Black Feminism (cf. Thiessen 2008, 38).

Before these movements emerged, feminist approaches were already represented in the literary field by Simone de Beauvoir, Mary Wollstonecraft, and Virginia Woolf, among others. Elaine Showalter chronologically names three phases of female writing: 1. Feminine phase (1840-1880), in which aesthetic male norms and standards were imitated, 2. Feminist phase (1880-1920), in which radical and separatist positions were often advocated, and 3. Female phase (1920 to the present), which focuses primarily on female writing and experience (see Barry 2009, 116, 118). Judith Butler is currently an author who is particularly concerned with gender (cf. Barry 2009, 139; Thiessen 2008, 41).

Among the most relevant movements are the two women’s movements in the 1960s/70s, in which women made demands, especially in the areas of sexuality and population policy (cf. Barry 2009, 116f.; Müller 2013, 131). Overall, the unpaid work they performed was also an important issue from the French Revolution to movements in the former GDR. In the second half of the 19th century, there were splits between women, as demands were related to the respective class of their (husbands), so that proletarian and bourgeois women were opposed to each other and sometimes had to subordinate themselves to their husbands again (cf. Müller 2013, 131f.).

The second half of the 20th century, on the other hand, was again strongly oriented towards the First Women’s Movement. Feminism was linked with socialism, and by separating from men, a culture of its own in the political sphere as well as in research was strived for. Despite interim successes in the GDR, such as permission to have abortions, women were still largely relegated to the background (see Müller 2013, 133).

Feminism in academic and contemporary discourse

Feminist criticism is „a specific kind of political discourse: a critique and theoretical practice committed to the struggle against patriarchy and sexism“ (Moi 1989, 117). Instead of „feminism,“ however, we should rather speak of „feminisms“ because the concerns of the various movements are very diverse-although a mutual exchange as well as influence has taken place and continues to take place (cf. Lenz 2018).

Despite the numerous approaches, they can be clustered based on a similar understanding of gender and society. A distinction can be made between structural feminisms, which focus on gender inequalities and power relations, and institutional feminisms, which focus more on pragmatic reform and structural change. Other subcategories include discursive feminisms, which focus on how images of gender are culturally created and disseminated, and queer feminisms, which address sexual and bodily diversity and demand its recognition. (cf. Lenz 2018).

In addition to feminisms and the women’s movement, a distinction must be made, especially in the academic context, between gender studies, which is an interdisciplinary scientific discipline that critically explores cultural and social relations from a gender perspective, drawing on scientific theories and methods (cf. Lenz 2018).

Likewise, feminism plays an important role in current social discourses. Particularly noteworthy and still relevant today is the MeToo movement launched in 2006 by U.S.-American activist Tarana Burke, which, however, only became popular in 2017 through a #MeToo tweet by Alyssa Milanos. The latter calls for sharing this hashtag if, like her, one has already been exposed to sexualized violence (cf. Martini 2020, 1). „At its core, […] [the #MeToo debate] is about women wanting to be in control of their own bodies and sexuality“ (Lenz 2018).

J.K. Rowling started another controversial debate in late 2019 with a tweet in which she backed British researcher Maya Forstater, who had previously proclaimed that biological sex could not be changed (see Steiner 2019). This drew criticism from the transgender community (cf. Hanfeld 2020).J.K. Rowling, however, emphasizes that she defends the rights of women, men, homosexuals, heterosexuals, and transsexuals (cf. Rowling 2020).

Literature

Barry, Peter (2009): Beginning Theory. An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory.

Peter Barry and Helen Carr (eds.). 3rd ed. Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press.

Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung (n.d.): feminism. Federal Agency for Civic Education. https://www.bpb.de/nachschlagen/lexika/politiklexikon/17484/feminismus [18.09.2020].

Hanfeld, Michael (2020): J. K. Rowling steps up in controversy over transgender notions. FAZ.NET.https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/debatten/j-k-rowling-legt-im-streit-um-transgender-vorstellungen-nach-16810240.html#void [19.09.2020].

Lenz, Ilse (2018): From care work to #MeToo. Current feminist issues and debates in Germany. Federal Agency for Civic Education. bpb.de/apuz/267940/von-der-sorgearbeit-bis-metoo-aktuelle-feministische-themen-und-debatten-in-deutschland?p=all [19.09.2020].

Martini, Franziska (2020): Who is #MeToo? A network analytic investigation of (anti-)feminist protest on Twitter…. Media & Communication Studies 3 (68): 255.

Moi, Toril (1989): Feminist, Female, Feminine. In: The Feminist Reader. Essays in Gender and the Politics of Literary Criticism. Catherine Belsey and Jane Moore (eds.). New York: Basil Blackwell, 117-32.

Müller, Ursula G.T. (2013): A political home for feminism – half the world for the left. The political location of feminism. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.

Rowling, Joanne K. (2020): J.K. Rowling Writes about Her Reasons for Speaking out on Sex and Gender Issues. J.K. ROWLING. https://www.jkrowling.com/opinions/j-k-rowling-writes-about-her-reasons-for-speaking-out-on-sex-and-gender-issues/ [09/19/2020].

Steiner, Noëlle. (2019): J.K. Rowling earns shitstorm over gender tweet. Nau media.https://www.nau.ch/people/welt/jk-rowling-erntet-shitstorm-wegen-geschlechter-tweet-65631793 [19 Sep. 2020].

Thiessen, Barbara (2008): Feminism: differences and controversies. In: Handbook of Women’s and Gender Studies. Theories, Methods, Empiricism. Ruth Becker and Beate

Kortendiek (eds.). 2nd ed. and upd. Edition. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 37-44.