Discrimination

Discrimination derives from the Latin verb discriminare, which means „to separate“ and „to segregate.“ The term refers to the segregation and degradation of people on the basis of individual or group-specific characteristics (cf. Duden 2016, 149). Discrimination can be understood as „the use of group and personal categories to create, justify, and justify inequalities“ (cf. Scherr et al. 2017, v).

From a social psychological perspective, discrimination is understood as follows: „From a social psychological perspective, discrimination is understood not only as the simple differentiation between groups, but also as the unequal treatment of groups and of members of different groups. This includes belittling, exclusion from participation, threats of violence and the execution of violence. Discrimination can consist of actively attacking members of other groups, up to and including violence. However, discrimination is also present when members of discriminated groups are denied support.“ (Wagner 2020, 2)

Forms of discrimination

In addition to direct or also immediate discrimination, which is clearly perceived as such by those affected due to personality traits, there are other forms that are not directly recognizable as discrimination (cf. Barskanmaz 2019, 216).

Direct/immediate discrimination

Direct or immediate discrimination are „individually conscious and intentional discriminatory acts or direct institutional disadvantages“ (Zick 2017, 65) against individuals based on individual personality characteristics, such as national origin, gender, disability, etc. An example of direct discrimination is a person not getting a job because of their national origin or skin color (see Humanrights 2016).

Indirect/ indirect discrimination

Indirect or also indirect discrimination occurs when a regulation or practice is formulated neutrally and is not initially perceived as disadvantaging certain people, but in practice shows discriminatory tendencies (cf. ibid.). Often, indirect discrimination cannot be proven without problems. For example, part-time employees (often women) have worse chances than full-time employees (often men) to be promoted in a company. They are therefore indirectly discriminated against (see Humansrights 2016).

Structural discrimination

Structural discrimination is closely related to institutional discrimination. However, it differs in „the historical and socio-structural condensation of discrimination that can no longer be clearly traced back to specific institutions.“ (Gomolla 2017, 148) When prejudice develops into face-to-face racism, which in turn leads to discrimination in the workplace, housing, and violence, it is referred to as structural discrimination. Structural racism and sexism become especially entrenched when „discursive models emerge and establish a culture of racism that demeans migrants, refugees, and black people or misrepresents them through stereotypical reductions.“ (ibid.). Structural discrimination is often not recognized because existing structures are usually not reflected and not perceived as discrimination by those affected (see Humanrights 2016). One example is the lack of equality for social minorities and women (cf. ibid.).

Institutional discrimination

Institutional discrimination occurs when internal rules or organizational actions of institutions result in people from certain minorities being regularly disadvantaged, belittled and excluded by the institution. Mechanisms of institutional discrimination are maintained regardless of „individual prejudice or negative intentions“ (Gomolla 2017, 134). Unlike direct discrimination, institutional discrimination is not necessarily intended (cf. Voss/ Rothermund 2019, 511). Moreover, institutional discrimination does not emanate from individuals but from institutions that bring about that „measures in education, economics, and jurisprudence have a cumulative effect and in sum bring about the state of racial or ethnic discrimination“ (Fereidooni 2011, 24). This form occurs, for example, in schools, the labor market, health care, housing, police, or legal regulations.

Societal discrimination

Societal discrimination is primarily about stereotyping. Discrimination is thought to be more likely to occur when „those who discriminate assume that their actions are socially accepted or socially desirable“ (Talhout 2019, 10). For example, Islamophobic attitudes are more likely to be expressed if the person is in „Islam-critical“ company and thinks that their discriminatory behavior is socially desirable (cf. ADS 2015, 15 ff.).

Literature

Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency (ADS) (2015): Experiences of Discrimination in Germany. First results of a representative survey of affected persons. Berlin: Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency.

Barskanmaz, Cengiz (2019): Law and Racism. The human rights prohibition of discrimination on the basis of race. Berlin: Springer.

Duden editorial office (2013): Duden. The dictionary of origins. Etymology of the German language. 5th ed. Vol. 7. Berlin: Duden.

Fereidooni Karim (2011): The concept of institutional discrimination. In: School – Migration – Discrimination. Causes of disadvantage for children with a migration background in the German school system. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.

Gomolla, Mechtild (2017): Direct and indirect, institutional and structural discrimination. In: Scherr, Albert/ El-Mafaalani, Aladin/ Yüksel, Gökcen (Eds.): Handbook of discrimination. Wiesbaden: Springer, 133-156.

Humanrights (2016): Forms of Discrimination. https://www.humanrights.ch/de/menschenrechte-themen/diskriminierungsverbot/konzept/formen/ [17.03.2020].

Scherr, Albert (2017). Introduction: interdisciplinary discrimination research. In: Scherr, Albert/ El-Mafaalani, Aladin/ Yüksel, Gökcen (Eds.): Handbook of discrimination. Wiesbaden: Springer, I-1.

Talhout, Lisa Joana (2019): Muslim women and men in Germany. An empirical study on gender-specific experiences of discrimination. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.

Voss, Peggy/ Rothermund, Klaus (2019): Age discrimination in institutional contexts. In: Kracke, Bärbel/ Noack, Peter (Eds.): Handbook of developmental and educational psychology. Berlin/ Heidelberg: Springer, 509-538.

Wagner, Ulrich (2020): Discrimination between groups. In: Genkova, Petia/ Riecken, Andrea (Eds.): Handbook Migration and Success. Psychological and social science aspects. Wiesbaden: Springer, 71-82.

Zick, Andreas (2017): Social psychological discrimination research. In: Scherr, Albert/ El-Mafaalani, Aladin/ Yüksel, Gökcen (Eds.): Handbook of discrimination. Wiesbaden: Springer 39-58.