Conspiracy Theories

Conspiracy theories are defined as those actions that imply that other people, for example powerful politicians or influential entrepreneurs, are secretly pursuing evil intentions. Allegedly, these would plan something that gives them an advantage and harms all other people. Accordingly, the conspirators are an anti-democratic group that opposes and acts against the majority of the population (cf. Appel and Mehretab, 2019). Thus, an enemy image is created. Conspiracy theorists try to prove a conspiracy theory by mixing facts and invented information. However, there is no provable evidence for the conspiracy theory (cf. Schneider and Toyka-Seid, 2020).

Conspiracy theories and conspiracy ideologies.

A distinction is made in the literature between conspiracy theories and conspiracy ideologies. Conspiracy theory or also conspiracy hypothesis imply that a conspiracy can be tested for empirical statements, which also allows for corrections of itself. If, on the basis of an empirical investigation to verify the truth of this theory, it is determined that there is not enough evidence to support this theory, it is discarded (cf. Lpb). On the other hand, we speak of a conspiracy ideology if a conspiracy theory continues to be held despite evidence to the contrary. People who believe in such ideologies are also called conspiracy believers. „Similar to totalitarian political ideologies, conspiracy ideologies represent an absolute truth claim with a clearly identifiable enemy.“ (Lpb)

Causes

Three different motives have been identified for believing in conspiracy theories. The epistemic motive triumphs especially with complex systems and phenomena. Conspiracy theories offer a simplification of complex issues into understandable explanations with a simple friend-foe scheme. One example is the denial of man-made climate change. This is a scientific phenomenon of enormous complexity, which has been investigated in numerous research studies, but which still cannot be fully understood. The negation of change through supposedly simple explanations reduces the complexity to be confronted.

The second motive involves dealing with loss of control and a perceived powerlessness (existential motive). It resonates when people feel they have no control over their lives and feel threatened by external dangers. People in such situations are more receptive to conspiracy theories and more likely to believe them.

The third motive, the social motive, involves compensating for insecurities and a sense of exclusion. Conspiracy theories serve to make people feel better and can be identification-providing for a group or a person (cf. Appel and Mehretab, 2019).

Conspiracy theories in changing times

Conspiracy theories find increased popularity and attention in times of great uncertainties and crises. Thus, they do not represent a phenomenon unique to postmodernity, but have appeared again and again in human history. For example, in the 14th century with the spread of the plague in Europe. Even then, a scapegoat was found in fellow Jews and an old enemy image was served. According to conspiracy theories of the time, they were supposed to be to blame for the plague and faced persecution and reprisals (cf. Appel and Mehretab, 2019). Another example is the Dolchstoßlegende. In this, a betrayal of the democratic left as well as the communists and Jews against the German Wehrmacht is cited as the cause for the defeat in World War I. The Dolchstoßlegende served not only to strengthen the own self-image but also to legitimize the policy of the National Socialists (cf. Lpb). In modern times, an increased occurrence of various conspiracy theories can be observed. The knowledge of experts and authorities loses importance for supporters of conspiracy theories and perceived truths form the basis for decisions.Nevertheless, it is important in social discourse to be open to contrary opinions.If theories are fact-based and are based on sound foundations, they should not be dismissed lightly as conspiracy narratives, but a critical discussion should follow. Otherwise, a possibly unjustified discrediting and framing of the counterpart takes place and a social discourse is prevented (cf. Douglas et al. 2019).

Also in the wake of the Corona pandemic, an increased attention of various conspiracy theories and conspiracy logics can be observed. These range from deliberate destruction of the economic system to negation of the existence of viruses. The theories and claims partly contradict each other, but nevertheless find increased popularity and were recently also a topic in the Federal Press Conference (cf. Federal Press Conference of 31.08.2020).

Bibliography

Schneider, Gerd and Toyka-Seid Christiane (2020): Das junge Politik-Lexikon von www.hanisauland.de, Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung.

Landeszentrale für politische Bildung. www.lpb-bw.de/verschwoerungstheorien.

Appel and S. Mehretab (2019). The psychology of the postfactual: On fake news, „lying press,“ clickbait & co. conspiracy theories (pp.117-126).

Douglas, Karen, Uscinski, Joseph, Sutton, Robbie M., Cichocka, Aleksandra, Nefes, Turkay, Ang, Chee Siang, Deravi, Farzin (2019): Understanding conspiracy theories. Advances in Political Psychology, 40 (S1). pp. 3-35.

The Federal Government: www.bundesregierung.de/breg-de/suche/regierungspressekonferenz-vom-31-august-2020-1781420.